Cosmological Ideas in Science and Religion:
The Riddle of Singularity and its Solution by Guru Nanak
Hardev
Singh Virk
Visiting
Professor, SGGS World University, Fatehgarh Sahib
Abstract
Cosmology deals with the
problem of the creation of the universe. Almost all religions have dealt with the
problem of creation of the universe from time immemorial in their sacred texts.
Guru Nanak, the founder of the Sikh faith, critically examined the theories of
creation of the universe prevalent in India
Introduction
Scientists
use physical and chemical methods to discover the secrets of universe while the
Prophets use divine intuition to reveal these secrets. All their conclusions
may not coincide but their objective remains the same to explore the secret of
Laws of Universe for the benefit of the humanity so that humanity can live
peacefully on this tiny planet, the earth.
The most important question discussed by the Prophets and
scientists is the origin of the universe. The question has been answered in two
different ways. One line of thought is that the universe came into existence
itself. The other line of thought is that there are signs of designing and
planning in the universe (Intelligent Design); therefore, it must have been
created by a superpower.
There are a large number of theories about the creation
of the universe but so far ‘Big Bang Theory’ is widely accepted by many
scientists. However, with every new scientific discovery the theory may undergo
a drastic change in the future. One must keep in mind that theories are based
on some scientific information and use of logic and it will change as soon as
more facts are discovered. Many theologians emphasize that theories propounded
by scientists change with the time, therefore, the science is not a stable
field. On the other hand they say that the God has revealed the theology to the
deities, prophets, Gurus; therefore, it cannot change. But one should also not
forget that God has also revealed principles of science, Laws of Universe, to
the scientists. Therefore, science and theology cannot contradict each other
since both have been revealed by God 1.
(A) Cosmological Ideas
in Science
Cosmology2-5
deals with the problem of creation of the Universe. It has played a decisive role in the conflict
between science and religion. Various
cosmological theories and models have been proposed in both science and religion.
Newton
God created the air, from
air came water and from water the world was created. God spirit permeates all the beings.
swcy qy pvnw
BieAw pvnY qy jl hoie ]
jl qy
iqRBvxu swijAw Git Git joiq smoie ]
Relativistic
Models of the Universe
The real investigation of
the cosmological problem begins with the advent of Einstein’s general theory of
relativity presented in 1915, which is in reality a cosmological theory. Each cosmological solution of the field
equations of Einstein gives us a model of the Universe, by which is meant an
account of the history of the Universe.
Of the many models available, only one can be correct, as we have only
one actual universe. We will describe
several models which have been proposed till date.
A cosmological model is intended to represent the
positions and motions of the clusters of galaxies. The basic feature in the history of the
universe is the expansion. For relativistic
cosmological models, the expansion curve is obtained from solutions of
Einstein’s equations.
Let us fix attention on two typical galaxies A and B, and
suppose that at a certain moment the distance between A and B is 1 unit: the
unit could be any large distance, say 100 million light years. Before this moment the distance AB will be
less and afterwards it will be greater.
If R is used to denote the distance AB, then R depends on the time. Different models (Figure 1) give different
graphs for the dependence of R on the time.
Accordingly we get these models:
:
(1)
Einstein-De
Sitter model,
(2)
Cycloidal
model,
(3)
Hyperbolic
model.
1. The Einstein-De Sitter
model: It is simplest relativistic
model which starts from a ‘singular state’.
This means that function R is Zero in the beginning so that distance AB
was zero, and the distance between all pairs of galaxies was zero. Matter was so closely packed that density was
infinite. In this model, R increases
rapidly from zero, the rate of increase becomes less rapid as time goes
on. According to this model, the present
time is about 7,000 million years after the singular state.
2. Cycloidal model: In this model, R increases to a maximum and
then decreases to zero again. The
distance AB between the two galaxies increases up to time M and after time M,
it starts decreasing, until at E, the distance AB is again zero. The event ‘E’ which is known as ‘end of the
world’ is the most remarkable feature of this model. Both S and E represent singular states.
In the cycloidal model,
light from distant galaxies is shifted towards the red while the expansion is
going on. During the second half there
is a contraction and the red shift becomes a violet shift. During contraction the night sky will appear
as bright as the day. According to this
model the space is finite and the expansion of universe can be explained on the
analogy of an expanding balloon.
3. Hyperbolic model: This model has an expansion curve similar to
that of the Einstein-de Sitter model, but it rises rather more steeply. The model starts from a singular state and
expands for ever; its volume is infinite.
We can sum up all three
models, based on their expansion curves, as parabolic, elliptic and hyperbolic,
respectively.
Oscillating model: To get rid of the singular states, the
oscillating model (Figure 2) has been proposed.
Each contracting period in the universe’s history ends in a smooth
transition to subsequent period of expansion.
The universe is infinite in time but finite in space. There are no singular states and hence no
need of bringing in the creator. The
universe continues for ever following the cycles of expansion and contraction.
Relativistic
Models with Cosmic Repulsion
1. Einstein model: This model is static with
its space curved and of finite volume. Einstein assumed a static
universe, and to accommodate for it, he introduced an antigravity unit called
cosmological term which is multiplied by a cosmological constant. The reason
for its inclusion was simply to provide for a static cosmic equilibrium. The
assumption that cosmic bodies are continuously experiencing mutual
gravitational pull would eventually cause the cosmic bodies to converge and
become one. In other words, the universe would collapse. To overcome
gravitational attraction, Einstein introduced a l term in his field
equations to bring in repulsion at cosmological distances. With Hubble’s
observation of an expanding universe, Einstein regretted modifying his theory
of general relativity with the cosmological constant and called it “the biggest
blunder of my life.”
2. Lemaitre’s model: This model (Figure 2) starts from a singular
state at O, and begins to expand rapidly.
The expansion slows down and for a period AB the conditions are almost
static as the gravitational attraction is being balanced by cosmic repulsion. After AB, the repulsion predominates and the
universe expands continuously for ever under the influence of the l term alone.
If there is no cosmic repulsion, Lemaitre model would be similar to
cycloidal model with its curved space and a finite volume.
Lemaitre believes his model to be a
correct representation of the real universe.
In particular, he has pictured the initial singular state as being the
explosion of the ‘primeval atom’ as mentioned earlier.
Steady State Theory/Model
It
is important to understand that steady state universe is not static. Change is going on all the time, but the
overall picture does not alter. There is
continuous creation of matter and unceasing motion. But the amount of matter created is so small,
that it has not been detected by any experiment so far.
The
most controversial feature of the theory is the creation of matter. It is created not out of radiation or
something else, but out of ‘nothing’.
The rate of creation is so small and the universe so large that if one
hydrogen atom is supposed to be created in a room of normal size every 5000
years, there will be enough matter for 50,000 Suns every second.
This model (Figure 2) is based on
cosmological principle: ‘Universe is the same for all observers, for all the
time and space to come’. There is no
singular state to be explained. The main
objections to this model are:
(1).
It does not obey the law of conservation of energy, and (2) no explanation is
given of why the universe is expanding as there are no field equations, as in
relativistic models, with or without l term. To detect creation of matter would be a final
test for this model.
Fred
Hoyle and Jayant Narlikar (1962-63) have introduced field equations to explain
for expansion of the universe. The
observations of M. Royle of Cambridge
University
Big Bang Theory/Model
The creation or expansion
of the universe from singular state is referred to as ‘Big Bang’. It’s most ambitious and detailed theory is
that of Gamow and collaborators, known as abg theory. They suppose that universe started from a
very dense, hot mass of neutrons which decayed into protons and electrons.
These combined to form complex nuclei.
The temperature during this phase was 10,000 million degrees Kelvin and
most of the heavy elements were built up in the first 30 minutes of the
expansion. The abg theory fails to explain
the production of heavier elements after helium. Lemaitre explains the big bang from a
primeval atom--an atom which contained all the matter of the universe.
The Big Bang theory is an effort to explain what happened
at the very beginning of our universe. Discoveries in astronomy and physics
have shown beyond a reasonable doubt that our universe did in fact have a
beginning. Prior to that moment there was nothing; during and after that moment
there was something: our universe. The big bang theory is an effort to explain
what happened during and after that moment.
Our universe sprang into existence as a "singularity"
around 13.7 billion years ago (some say about 15 billions). What is a
"singularity" and where does it come from? Well, to be honest, we
don't know for sure. Singularities are zones which defy our current
understanding of physics. They are thought to exist at the core of "black
holes." According to Big-Bang model, our universe is thought to have begun
as an infinitesimally small, infinitely hot, infinitely dense, something - a
singularity. Where did it come from? We don't know. Why did it appear? We don't
know.
Mathematically speaking, the moment of
origin (time, t=0) of the universe is called a singularity; the density
of matter and space-time curvature is infinite and the distance between any two
“observers” is zero. Interestingly, the laws of physics, as are known to us,
breakdown here. To understand the events close to the singularity, rules of
quantum mechanics are employed.
In 1964 Arno Penzia and Robert Wilson discovered very
high frequency radio microwaves coming from all directions of the sky. They believed that these microwaves were the
remnants of the "echo" of the Big Bang, which is still pulsating and
reverberating through the universe7. Evidence collected by
astronomers during the last 50 years confirms the hypothesis of expanding
Universe and it is the basis of Big-Bang cosmology.
According to current scientific
understanding, origin of the universe is best understood by reversing the
expansion process. In the reverse, more than 100 billion galaxies with billions
of stars are compressed together. As it shrinks the temperature and the density
of the primordial plasma rises. Extrapolating to the point of origin the
universe would have begun as a point of extremely high temperature and density.
The Big Bang occurred at this stage and space and time came into existence. It
was believed that matter is made of protons and neutrons, but with the advances
in particle physics these have been replaced by their smaller constituents
called quarks. Before protons and neutrons the universe is said to
consist of quarks, electrons and photons. Using this model the history of the
universe has been reconstructed to one thousand-billionth of a second (10-12)
after the Big Bang.
Inflation
Theory of Big-Bang
Alan Guth of MIT proposed Inflation
theory8 to explain the rapid expansion of Universe. According to this theory, the size of the
Universe doubles every 10-35 of a second and age of the Universe is
about 15 billion years. Quantum physics
allows the Universe to appear out of nothing at all, as a vacuum fluctuation. It
should be noted that “quantum nothingness” is different from absolute
nothingness (complete emptiness). Chaotic inflation led to the sudden expansion
of the Universe out of a quantum fluctuation.
The seed of the Universe is considered
to be a ‘magnetic monopole’, according to a new version of inflation
theory. Hubble Telescope has provided
some most useful data to clinch the issues in Big-Bang Cosmology.
In 1992
COBE satellite discovered hot and cold patches in the cosmic background
radiation that are characterized as primeval ripples. These patches have
traveled undisturbed since the cooling of the universe, three hundred thousand
years after the Big Bang. George Smoot, 2006 Nobel Laureate9, has
discovered the long-sought hard evidence for the Big-Bang origin of Universe on
the basis of small fluctuations found with the help of NASA’s Cosmic Background
Explorer (COBE).
(B) Cosmological
Ideas in Oriental and Occidental Religions
Hindu Religion
Let
us examine the approach of Hindu religion to the problems of cosmology. The
world’s most ancient text of religious literature, viz. Rig Veda deals with the problem of
creation of universe in its famous chapter10 ‘Nasdiya Sukt’. The Vedic seer sang in Rig Veda thus:
Who
can tell us surely?
From
what and how this universe has risen?
And
whether or not till after it the gods lived?
Who then can know from what
it has arisen?
The
source from which this universe has risen
And
whether it was made or uncreated,
He only knows, who from the
highest heaven rules,
The
all-seeing Lord or does not He know?
We may quote
some more hymns on the creation of the Universe from Atharva Veda11.
It is known as Golden Womb (Hiranyagarbha) hypothesis which assumes Universe
as extension of God. The division of creation into terrestrial, celestial and
interspatial regions is more akin to Greek and Islamic traditions. The
relationship of man and universe is also demonstrated through this division
into three realms in a perfectly logical manner.
In the beginning was Hiranyagarbha, The
seed of Elemental Existence, The only Lord of all that was born. The whole of
this Universe is stationed in the Omnipresent and the Omnipotent God.
We see Him in various forms. He brings
to light all these Worlds. Him they call the Kala, Infinite, pervading the
Infinite Space.
In this creation are held in balance
the three regions, terrestrial, interspatial and celestial, and the three
divine realms pertaining to body, mind and spirit provided with three eternal
functions-physical, mental and transcendental.
Upnishadas, the great treatises on
Indian Philosophy, also deal with the cosmological problem. According to Deussen12 there are
four views of creation in Hindu philosophy based on Upnishadas:
1.
Matter
is eternal and Purusha (creator) has always been independent of
God. God does not create the matter but
moulds it into creation as a potter makes the earthen pots.
2.
Purusha is the cause and creator
of matter. But after the creation, God
does not interfere in its working and it continues according to its own
fundamental laws.
3.
God
himself transforms into creation i.e., changing his Nirguna form into Saguna
form.
4.
Creation
is a play of Maya. It is a mere
illusion. Only God is real.
Hinduism has several funny creation
beliefs in the Purana literature13.
According to Vamapurana, Brahma lay within an egg and after it broke the
sacred word Om emanated. The first
sound was bhuh, the second bhuvaha and the third svaha.
The sun emerged from the egg, in the centre of which was the creator Brahma.
In Brahmanda Purana,
Brahma hatched from a golden egg and made the sky and earth from the eggshell.
After creating rocks and mountains, Brahma created Saraswati and fell
passionately in love with her. He persuaded her to marry him and at the end of
the wedding night Manu, the first human being was born. To him Brahma gave
eight gifts - five senses, movement, reproduction and intelligence.
The
age of the universe according to the Hindu view is infinite. There are innumerable Brahmas who are
employed in the process of creation.
Each Brahma has life-time of 100 years. On astronomical time scale the year is much
bigger than our solar year. Some of the
units are given below:
1 Maha Yuga =
S+D+T+K (Four Yugas)
=
432x104 Solar Years
1000 Maha Yugas=
Kalp=Day=Night (of Brahma).
1000 Maha Yugas = 14
Manvantar + 15 Junctions.
After working out the above relation
we can get:
1 Manvantar =
71x432x104 Solar years.
For
an analogy if we represent the cosmological time as still water in a pond, then
the cycles of creation can be represented by the surface ripples which continue
for ever. Thus the age of universe in
this system is infinite and the creation (Utpal-Parlo) is a mere phase
in it.
Semitic Religions
Judeo-Christian
Tradition
According
to the Holy Bible, the creation of universe is the manifestation of God. The whole process of creation was completed
in six days. The first book of Moses,
called Genesis14, opens with the lines: In the beginning God created the heaven and
the earth. God
created the universe out of nothing (ex nihilo) through a series of
commands.
And God said, "Let there be
light"; and there was light (Gen. 1:3). "Let there be a firmament in
the midst of the waters, and let it separate the waters from the waters"
(Gen.1:6). And God said, "Let the waters under the heavens be gathered
together into one place, and let the dry land appear." And it was so (Gen.
1:9). "Let there be lights in the firmament of the heavens to separate the
day from the night; and let them be for signs and for seasons and for days and
years (Gen. 1:14).
And God said, "Let the waters
bring forth swarms of living creatures, and let birds fly above the earth
across the firmament of the heavens" (Gen. 1:20). Then God said, "Let
us make man in our image, after our likeness; and let them have dominion over
the fish of the sea, and over the birds of the air, and over the cattle, and
over all the earth, and over every creeping thing that creeps upon the
earth" (Gen. 1:26).
In
1650, Bishop Usher of Ireland Europe ).
The
end of the world too is envisaged in the Bible: “The heavens shall pass away
with a great noise, the elements shall melt with fervent heat, the earth also and
the works that are therein shall be burned up” 15.
Islamic tradition
According to a recent study
of Cosmology in Quran, Kamel Ben Salem16 tries to interpret Quranic
verses in the light of scientific theories of creation of Universe. The Holy Quran
speaks of creation as a big bang. When
Allah spoke the word ‘Kun’ there was creation all around. The Quran
states that the creation phenomenon in the universe is a continuous process (Sura 30, verse 11):
"It is God Who begins (the process of) creation;
Then repeats it."
According to the Islamic
view, there are seven heavens and seven earths (Sura 65, verse 12):
"God
is the One Who created seven heavens and of the earth a similar number.”
The Quran almost repeats the Biblical version
of the genesis story that God created the Universe with all its manifestations
in just six days but does not state that God took rest on seventh day (Sura 50, verse 38):
"We
created the heavens, the earth and what is between them in six days and no
weariness touched Us."
Some
accounts deal with the creation more specifically stating that earth was
created on a Sunday and Monday. On Tuesday He created the mountains and on
Wednesday trees, water and cultivation came into existence. On Thursday God
created heaven and the stars, sun, and moon and the angels were created on a
Friday.
The Universe is divided
into three realms as shown in Hindu view of creation in Atharva Veda: those
which are found in heavens; those which
are found on Earth; those which are found between the heavens and the Earth (Sura 32, verse 4):
"God
is He Who has created the heavens and the earth, and all that is between them in six
days”.
The Quran
says that the universe was created from a gaseous mass with fine particles, the
elements of which were initially soldered to form one unit which will later be
divided. Expansion started after the build up operation and it continues until
now (Sura 51, verse 47):
"The heaven, We have built it with power,
Verily We are expanding it."
The Quran advocates a
cyclic view of the Universe as in Hindu and Sikh Cosmologies, and specifies
that after expansion there will be a collapse, then a re-birth in exactly the
same way as at the beginning (Sura 30, verse 11):
"It is God Who
begins (the process of) creation; Then repeats it."
According to Ben Salem, the following
chronology may be established according to the verses concerning the creation
and the evolution of the universe in Quran, provided we consider the length of
God’s day equivalent to one thousand lunar years (Sura 32, verse 5):
The age of the Earth = 4.6 billion years
The age of the Universe = 13.8
billion years
The end of the Universe is
linked to that of the solar system (according to Sura 81, verse 1 and Sura 41,
verse 10), which would occur towards 18.4 billion years after the big-bang.
Cosmology in Sikh
Religion
It is my considered opinion
that Sikh Cosmology as enunciated in SGGS has been found to be most scientific
and compatible with the modern cosmological theories of science. Guru Nanak challenges the Hindu world-view as
archaic and based on dogma and mythology.
In Japuji, Guru Nanak sums up
his ideas about creation of the Universe, which he elaborates further in the
most precise and scientific manner in the Raga
Maru Solhe in SGGS. The creation
hypothesis is summed up as follows by Guru Nanak 17:
‘God created
the Universe by uttering a word.’
kIqw pswau eyko kvwau ] iqs qy hoey lK drIAwau
]
Thus the problem of
‘singularity’ faced by the Big-Bang model of the Universe is solved by the Guru
by bringing in God as the creator of the Universe. Once this riddle is solved, the sequence of
creation, its epoch and extent is described in SGGS in a most rational manner.
Guru Nanak poses the next question in Japuji18:
‘What was the
time and the moment
the day and
the month,
When the
world was created?
kvxu su vylw
vKqu kvxu kvxu iQiq kvxu vwru ]
kvix is ruqI
mwhu kvxu ijqu hoAw Awkwru ]
In the next stanza, Guru
Nanak provides the answer 19:
‘Neither the
Pundit can find this date
by looking
through the Purana texts,
Nor can the
Qazi tell from the Koran,
Neither the
Yogi nor any one else knows
The day,
weak, season and month of creation,
The creator
who creates the World
He alone
knows the time’
vyl n pweIAw
pMfqI ij hovY lyKu purwxu ]
vKqu n pwieE
kwdIAw ij ilKin lyKu kurwx ]
iQiq vwru nw
jogI jwxY ruiq mwhu nw koeI ]
jw krqw
isrTI kau swjy Awpy jwxY soeI ]
Guru Nanak does not want to
formulate any hypothesis based on false assumptions and leaves this question
open. The creation process is started
under the command of God, the creator of the universe. The Guru envisages the creation of the
Universe out of ‘Sunya’ which is
devoid of matter but not of energy.
Hence a beautiful analogy with quantum concept of creation ‘out of
nothing’ as a vacuum fluctuation is established in Raga Maru Solhe 20:
In the Primal
Void, the Infinite Lord assumed His Power
He created
the air, water, earth and sky;
He created universe and the man in the
fortress of body
suMn klw
AprMpir DwrI ]…………………
pauxu pwxI
suMnY qy swjy ] isRsit aupwie kwieAw gV rwjy ]
This wonderful drama of
creation is elucidated further by Guru Nanak in his mystic reverie. Surprisingly, there is a perfect
correspondence between the epoch of ‘Big-Bang’ and the creation out of Sunya phase as enunciated in Maru Solhe, the most beautiful hymn on
Sikh Cosmology 21:
‘For
billions of years, there was nothing but utter darkness. There was neither day nor night, nor moon,
nor sun, but the Lord alone sat in profound trance. Neither there was creation, nor air, nor
water. There were no continents, nor
underworlds, nor seven oceans nor rivers, or the flowing water. There was neither death, nor time. There was no Brahma, nor Vishnu or Shiva.
When
He so willed, He created the world and supported the firmament without
support. He created Brahma, Vishnu and
Shiva and extended the love of mammon.
He founded the continents, solar systems and underworlds, and from the
Absolute self,He became manifest.”
Arbd nrbd
DuMDUkwrw [[Drix n ggnw hukmu Apwrw [[
nw idnu
rYin n cMdu n sUrju suMn smwiD lgwiedw ]……
Guru Arjun Dev, the fifth
Sikh Guru and compiler of SGGS, describes in Sukhmani
the myriad forms of creation22. The cyclic theory of creation is
accepted as a norm in SGGS:
There
are millions and millions of galaxies and solar systems in the universe. The phenomenon of creation has occurred so
many times. But the one Lord remains for
ever and ever.”
keI koit KwxI Aru KMf ] keI koit Akws bRhmMf ]
keI koit hoey Avqwr ] keI
jugiq kIno ibsQwr]
keI bwr psirE pwswr] sdw sdw ieku eykMkwr]
The universe is still expanding since the Big Bang
occurred. And no limit has been established according to the present day
knowledge of science. Guru Nanak explains infiniteness of universe in his own
inimitable style after rejecting the hypotheses put forward by religions of
both the oriental and occidental traditions, as follows23:
There are
hundreds of thousands of nether worlds,
and
hundreds of thousands of skies.
After
great research the Vedas have said it definitely.
The
Semitic books say that there are eighteen thousand worlds,
and that
is the fact.
pwqwlw pwqwl lK Awgwsw Awgws ]
EVk EVk Bwil Qky vyd khin iek vwq ]
shs ATwrh khin kqybw AsulU ieku Dwqu ]
However, Guru Nanak does not enter into any mathematical
rigmaroles to make an assessment or count of the celestial bodies comprising
our Universe. After quoting the prevalent tradition or information available at
that time, Guru Nanak records his own observations in SGGS in the form of his
mystic reverie. He says that the cosmos (universe) contains countless number of
celestial bodies. The real number would be known only to the God, the creator
of the Universe23:
It cannot
be possible to count (number of the celestial bodies in the universe)
because
the accounting person may reach the end of his life during counting,
it will
still be incomplete.
He
further says that the God is the Great,
Who knows
the account (of the celestial bodies in the universe).
lyKw hoie q ilKIAY lyKY hoie ivxwsu ]
nwnk vfw AwKIAY
Awpy jwxY Awpu ]
According to the present scientific information available
there are billions of galaxies and each galaxy is composed of billions of stars
and their planets and moons. Our sun, having nine planets revolving around it,
is one of the billions of stars of our galaxy, the Milky Way.
The riddle of creation of
the Universe will remain an enigma for cosmologists and there is no final word
yet in cosmology. About the present
theories and models, we may conclude with a quotation from the Benti Chaupai in Dasam Granth 24:
“Everyone
explains the creation process according to his intellect,
But no one
can tell, O Lord,
How
you first created the universe”
Awp
AwpnI buiD hY jyqI [ brnq iBMn-iBMn quih qyqI [
qumrw
lKw n jwie pswrw [ ikh ibiD sjw pRQm sMswrw [
End
Note: This
Essay is part of My Book: “Scientific Vision in Sri Guru Granth Sahib and
Inter-Faith Dialogue” published by Singh Brothers Amritsar (2007).
References:
1.
DS
Chahal, Understanding Sikhism: The Research Journal, Vol. 9(1), p.46, 2006.
2
HS
Virk, Cosmology: Religious & Scientific Aspects, Khoj Patrika, Punjabi University, Patiala
3
HS
Virk, Cosmology in Science & Religion, Proc. Summer School History of
Science, INSA, New Delhi, 1974.
4
HS
Virk, Cosmology in Science & Religion, Journal of Sikh Studies, Vol. 9(2),
pp. 19-30, 1982.
5 HS Virk, Cosmological Ideas in Science
& Aad Guru Granth Sahib,
Omega: Ind. Journal of Science &
Religion, Vol. 3(1), pp. 72-75, 2004.
6 SGGS, M1, p.19. (SGGS = Sri Guru Granth
Sahib, published by SGPC, Golden
Temple Press, Amritsar
7 Time Magazine, Hammond Almanac Inc. Maplewood , New
Jersey
8 John Gribbin, Watching the Universe,
Universities Press (India
9 George
Smoot, CERN Courrier, Vol. 47(3), p.
26, 2007.
10 The Holy
Vedas, English Translation by Pandit Satyakam Vidyalankar, International Veda Trust, Delhi,
1983, p.39 (Rig. 10.129.7).
11 Ibid, Hymns
on Creation (Atharva, 4.2.7).
12 Paul Deussen,
The Philosophy of the Upanishads (English
Translation by Rev. A. S. Geden), Dover New York
13 PMS
Ahluwalia, The Handwriting of God, SikhSpectrum.com Monthly, Issue No.
12, May 2003, pp. 1-6.
14 The Old
Testament, Genesis, Chapter 1, p. 5.
15 The Old
Testament, II Peter, Chapter 3, p. 964.
16 Kamel
Ben Salem Akamai
University , Hawaii
17 SGGS, M1, p.3.
18
SGGS,
M1, p.4.
19
SGGS,
M1, p.4.
20 SGGS, M1, p.1037.
21
SGGS,
M1, p.1035.
22 SGGS, M5, p.276.
23 SGGS, M1, Jap 22, p. 5.
24 Guru Gobind
Singh, Benati Chaupai, Dasam Granth, Published by Bhai Chattar Singh - Jeewan Singh, Amritsar, 1902, p.1387.
The transcript includes a thorough list of all the subjects you have studied, along with your grade or mark totals. You can also check out about transcript from Punjab Technical University here.
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